You can obtain the sizes like this:
In[1]:= Rasterize[Graphics[{}, ImageSize -> #], "RasterSize"] & /@ {Tiny, Small, Medium, Large}
Out[1]= {{100, 100}, {180, 180}, {360, 359}, {576, 575}}
It is the horizontal size that is relevant. The vertical size will depend on the aspect ratio. Thus ImageSize -> Medium corresponds to ImageSize -> 360.
A warning: In some cases Tiny, Small, etc. do not directly correspond to numerical values, and their effect depends on the context. I do not know if this is the case for ImageSize or not (I could imagine it might depend on the screen DPI setting, but then it might not.) I'm just warning you. (An example where this happens is Arrowheads, where using numerical values causes the arrow to scale with the graphic, while using e.g. Large makes the arrow size independent of the image size.)
Edit by István:
Below is a comprehensive list of possible ImageSize specifications for various objects, with default settings:
spec = {Tiny, Small, Medium, Large, All, None, Full,
Automatic, {Large, Automatic}, {{Tiny}, {Medium}},
100, {100, 100}, Scaled@.6};
Panel@TableForm[{
Rasterize[Graphics[{}, ImageSize -> #], "RasterSize"] & /@ spec,
Rasterize[Graphics3D[{}, ImageSize -> #], "RasterSize"] & /@ spec,
Rasterize[Plot[x, {x, 0, 1}, ImageSize -> #], "RasterSize"] & /@ spec,
Rasterize[Slider[x, {0, 1}, ImageSize -> #], "RasterSize"] & /@ spec,
Rasterize[Quiet@Pane["x", ImageSize -> #], "RasterSize"] & /@ spec
} // Transpose,
TableHeadings -> {spec, {Graphics, Graphics3D, Plot, Slider, Pane}},
TableDepth -> 2]

imgs = Graphics[Rectangle[{1, 1}], ImageSize -> #] & /@ {Tiny, Small, Medium, Large}and thenImageDimensions /@ imgs– C. E. Sep 05 '13 at 17:32Slider[.5, ImageSize -> Tiny] // Rasterize // ImageDimensions– Vitaliy Kaurov Sep 05 '13 at 17:37Graphics. kjo, can you update your question and specify whether you're talking only about graphics or all situations? – Szabolcs Sep 05 '13 at 17:41Graphicsonly) – kjo Sep 05 '13 at 18:06